Advances in Molecular OncologyAdvances in Molecular OncologyУспехи молекулярной онкологии2313-805X2413-3787Publishing House ABV Press9110.17650/2313-805X-2017-4-2-8-25REVIEW ARTICLESОБЗОРНЫЕ СТАТЬИPrevention of malignant neoplasmsПрофилактика злокачественных новообразованийZaridzeD. G.ЗаридзеД. Г.
Russian Federation

24 Kashirskoe Shosse, Moscow 115478

115478 Москва, Каширское шоссе, 24

dgzaridze@crc.umos.ruMaksimovichD. M.МаксимовичД. М.
Russian Federation

24 Kashirskoe Shosse, Moscow 115478

115478 Москва, Каширское шоссе, 24

Research Institute of Carcinogenesis, N.N. Blokhin Russian Cancer Research Center, Ministry of Health of RussiaНаучно-исследовательский институт канцерогенеза ФГБУ «Российский онкологический научный центр им. Н.Н. Блохина» Минздрава России15052017428253006201730062017Copyright ©; 2017, Zaridze D.G., Maksimovich D.M.Copyright ©; 2017, Заридзе Д.Г., Максимович Д.М.2017Zaridze D.G., Maksimovich D.M.Заридзе Д.Г., Максимович Д.М.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0https://umo.abvpress.ru/jour/article/view/91

Research in causation of cancer is an important part of cancer research in general and is an essential prerequisite for cancer prevention. The effective primary prevention is not visible without evidence based knowledge in the causation of cancer in humans.

There is sufficient evidence that certain life style and environment factors cause cancer in humans. These factors include: smoking and other types of tobacco consumption, overweight and obesity, lack of physical activity, diet rich in processed meat and poor in vegetables and fruits, certain types of viral and bacterial infection, ultraviolet radiation, ionizing radiation, ambient air pollution, carcinogens at workplace, exogenous hormones.

Cancer mortality is decreasing in majority of developed countries, including Russia. This mortality trend is mostly due to decrease in incidence and death rates of lung and other smoking related cancers and is caused by decline in smoking prevalence and change in tar content of cigarette smoke.

In Russia trend in mortality from all cancers is as well determined by decrease in incidence and mortality from gastric cancer, which is due to decline in prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection and improvement of diet, increase in consumption of fruits and vegetables. Thus the decline in cancer mortality is mostly the result of primary prevention which is the most effective avenue of cancer control. 

cancerprimary preventionepidemiologyrisk factoretiologyincidence of diseasemortalityзлокачественное новообразованиепрофилактикаэпидемиологияфактор рискаэтиологиязаболеваемостьсмертность1. Hill A.B. The environment and disease: association or causation? J R Soc Med 2015;108(1):32–7.Hill A.B. The environment and disease: association or causation? J R Soc Med 2015;108(1):32–7.2. Tobacco smoking. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2012;100(Pt E): 1–538.Tobacco smoking. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2012;100(Pt E): 1–538.3. Заридзе Д.Г. Профилактика рака. Руководство для врачей. М.: ИМА-ПРЕСС, 2009. 224 с. [Zaridze D.G. Cancer prophylactics. Guidelines for doctors. Moscow: IMA-PRESS, 2009. 224 p. (In Russ.)].Заридзе Д.Г. Профилактика рака. Руководство для врачей. М.: ИМА-ПРЕСС, 2009. 224 с. [Zaridze D.G. Cancer prophylactics. Guidelines for doctors. Moscow: IMA-PRESS, 2009. 224 p. (In Russ.)].4. Заридзе Д.Г., Мукерия А.Ф., Шаньгина О.В. Взаимодействие факторов окружающей среды и генетического полиморфизма в этиологии злокачественных опухолей. Успехи молекулярной онкологии 2016;3(2):8–17. [Zaridze D.G., Mukeria A.F., Shangina O.V. Interaction of environmental factors and heredity in the etiology of malignant tumors or Interaction of genetic polymorphism and exogenous factors in the etiology of malignant tumors. Uspekhi molekulyarnoy onkologii = Advances in Molecular Oncology 2016;3(2):8–17. (In Russ.)].Заридзе Д.Г., Мукерия А.Ф., Шаньгина О.В. Взаимодействие факторов окружающей среды и генетического полиморфизма в этиологии злокачественных опухолей. Успехи молекулярной онкологии 2016;3(2):8–17. [Zaridze D.G., Mukeria A.F., Shangina O.V. Interaction of environmental factors and heredity in the etiology of malignant tumors or Interaction of genetic polymorphism and exogenous factors in the etiology of malignant tumors. Uspekhi molekulyarnoy onkologii = Advances in Molecular Oncology 2016;3(2):8–17. (In Russ.)].5. Doll R., Hill A.B. Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report. Br Med J 1951;2(4682):739–48.Doll R., Hill A.B. Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report. Br Med J 1951;2(4682):739–48.6. Заридзе Д.Г. Табак – основная причина рака. М.: ИМА-ПРЕСС, 2012. 208 с. [Zaridze D.G. Tobacco – the main cause of cancer. Moscow: IMA-PRESS, 2012. 208 p. (In Russ.)].Заридзе Д.Г. Табак – основная причина рака. М.: ИМА-ПРЕСС, 2012. 208 с. [Zaridze D.G. Tobacco – the main cause of cancer. Moscow: IMA-PRESS, 2012. 208 p. (In Russ.)].7. Tobacco smoking. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 1986;38:35–394.Tobacco smoking. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 1986;38:35–394.8. Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2004;83:1–1438.Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2004;83:1–1438.9. Smokeless tobacco and some tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2007;89:1–592.Smokeless tobacco and some tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2007;89:1–592.10. Nagrani R., Mhatre S., Rajaraman P. et al. Central obesity increases risk of breast cancer irrespective of menopausal and hormonal receptor status in women of South Asian Ethnicity. Eur J Cancer 2016;66:153–61.Nagrani R., Mhatre S., Rajaraman P. et al. Central obesity increases risk of breast cancer irrespective of menopausal and hormonal receptor status in women of South Asian Ethnicity. Eur J Cancer 2016;66:153–61.11. Kelly S.P., Graubard B.I., Andreotti G. et al. Prediagnostic body mass index trajectories in relation to prostate cancer incidence and mortality in the PLCO cancer screening trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 2016;109(3):1–9.Kelly S.P., Graubard B.I., Andreotti G. et al. Prediagnostic body mass index trajectories in relation to prostate cancer incidence and mortality in the PLCO cancer screening trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 2016;109(3):1–9.12. Arnold M., Pandeya N., Byrnes G. et al. Global burden of cancer attributable to high body-mass index in 2012: a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 2015;16(1):36–46.Arnold M., Pandeya N., Byrnes G. et al. Global burden of cancer attributable to high body-mass index in 2012: a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 2015;16(1):36–46.13. Friedenreich C., Norat T., Steindorf K. et al. Physical activity and risk of colon and rectal cancer: The European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006;15(12):2398–407.Friedenreich C., Norat T., Steindorf K. et al. Physical activity and risk of colon and rectal cancer: The European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006;15(12):2398–407.14. Zaridze D.G. Environmental etiology of large-bowel cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1983;70(3):389–400.Zaridze D.G. Environmental etiology of large-bowel cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1983;70(3):389–400.15. English D.R., MacInnis R. J., Hodge A.M. et al. Red meat, chicken, and fish consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004;13(9):1509–14.English D.R., MacInnis R. J., Hodge A.M. et al. Red meat, chicken, and fish consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004;13(9):1509–14.16. Chao A., Thun M.J., Connell C.J. et al. Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. JAMA 2005;293(2):172–82.Chao A., Thun M.J., Connell C.J. et al. Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. JAMA 2005;293(2):172–82.17. Norat T., Bingham S., Ferrari P. et al. Meat, fish, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005;97(12):906–16.Norat T., Bingham S., Ferrari P. et al. Meat, fish, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005;97(12):906–16.18. Domingo J.L., Nadal M. Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat: What about environmental contaminants? Environ Res 2016;145:109–15.Domingo J.L., Nadal M. Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat: What about environmental contaminants? Environ Res 2016;145:109–15.19. Consumption of red meat and processed meat. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2015;114:6–13.Consumption of red meat and processed meat. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2015;114:6–13.20. Koushik A., Hunter D.J., Spiegelman D. et al. Fruits, vegetables, and colon cancer risk in a pooled analysis of 14 cohort studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99(19):1471–83.Koushik A., Hunter D.J., Spiegelman D. et al. Fruits, vegetables, and colon cancer risk in a pooled analysis of 14 cohort studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99(19):1471–83.21. van Duijnhoven F.J., Bueno-De-Mesquita H.B., Ferrari P. et al. Fruit, vegetables, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(5):1441–52.van Duijnhoven F.J., Bueno-De-Mesquita H.B., Ferrari P. et al. Fruit, vegetables, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(5):1441–52.22. Bingham S.A., Day N.E., Luben R. et al. Dietary fiber in food and protection against colorectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC): an observational study. Lancet 2003;361(9368):1496–501.Bingham S.A., Day N.E., Luben R. et al. Dietary fiber in food and protection against colorectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC): an observational study. Lancet 2003;361(9368):1496–501.23. Biological agents. Hepatitis B virus. Hepatitis C virus. Human papillomaviruses. Helicobacter pylori. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2012;100B:1–499.Biological agents. Hepatitis B virus. Hepatitis C virus. Human papillomaviruses. Helicobacter pylori. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2012;100B:1–499.24. Helicobacter and Cancer Collaborative Group. Gastric cancer and Helicobacter pylori: a combined analysis of 12 case control studies nested within prospective cohorts. Gut 2001;49(3):347–53.Helicobacter and Cancer Collaborative Group. Gastric cancer and Helicobacter pylori: a combined analysis of 12 case control studies nested within prospective cohorts. Gut 2001;49(3):347–53.25. Hepatitis viruses. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 1994;59:1–255.Hepatitis viruses. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 1994;59:1–255.26. Human papillomaviruses. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2007;90:1–636.Human papillomaviruses. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2007;90:1–636.27. Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004. World Health Organisation Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse. WHO Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004. Geneva, 2004. Pp. 1–68.Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004. World Health Organisation Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse. WHO Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004. Geneva, 2004. Pp. 1–68.28. Alcohol drinking. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 1988;44:7–379.Alcohol drinking. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 1988;44:7–379.29. Alcohol consumption and ethyl carbamate. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2010;96(3):1383.Alcohol consumption and ethyl carbamate. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2010;96(3):1383.30. Moore L.E., Hung R., Karami S. et al. Folate metabolism genes, vegetable intake and renal cancer risk in central Europe. Int J Cancer 2008;122(8):1710–5.Moore L.E., Hung R., Karami S. et al. Folate metabolism genes, vegetable intake and renal cancer risk in central Europe. Int J Cancer 2008;122(8):1710–5.31. Zaridze D., Brennan P., Boreham J. et al. Alcohol and cause-specific mortality in Russia: a retrospective case-control study of 48,557 adult deaths. Lancet 2009;373(9682):2201–14.Zaridze D., Brennan P., Boreham J. et al. Alcohol and cause-specific mortality in Russia: a retrospective case-control study of 48,557 adult deaths. Lancet 2009;373(9682):2201–14.32. Outdoor air pollution. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2016;109:35–448.Outdoor air pollution. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2016;109:35–448.33. Brauer M., Amann M., Burnett R.T. et al. Exposure assessment for estimation of the global burden of disease attributable to outdoor air pollution. Environ Sci Technol 2012;46(2):652–60.Brauer M., Amann M., Burnett R.T. et al. Exposure assessment for estimation of the global burden of disease attributable to outdoor air pollution. Environ Sci Technol 2012;46(2):652–60.34. Chemical agents and related occupations. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2012;100(Pt F):9–562.Chemical agents and related occupations. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2012;100(Pt F):9–562.35. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Solar and Ultraviolet Radiation. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 1992;55:1–316.IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Solar and Ultraviolet Radiation. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 1992;55:1–316.36. Montella A., Gavin A., Middleton R. et al. Cutaneous melanoma mortality starting to change: a study of trends in Northern Ireland. Eur J Cancer 2009;45(13):2360–6.Montella A., Gavin A., Middleton R. et al. Cutaneous melanoma mortality starting to change: a study of trends in Northern Ireland. Eur J Cancer 2009;45(13):2360–6.37. Autier P., Koechlin A., Boniol M. The forthcoming inexorable decline of cutaneous melanoma mortality in lightskinned populations. Eur J Cancer 2015;51(7):869–78.Autier P., Koechlin A., Boniol M. The forthcoming inexorable decline of cutaneous melanoma mortality in lightskinned populations. Eur J Cancer 2015;51(7):869–78.38. Radiation. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2012;100(Pt D): 7–303.Radiation. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2012;100(Pt D): 7–303.39. Breast cancer screening. IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention? International Agency for Research on Cancer. World Health Organixation. IARC Press, 2012.Breast cancer screening. IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention? International Agency for Research on Cancer. World Health Organixation. IARC Press, 2012.40. Marshall H.M., Bowman R.V., Yang I.A. et al. Screening for lung cancer with lowdose computed tomography: a review of current status. J Thorac Dis 2013;5(Suppl 5):S524–39.Marshall H.M., Bowman R.V., Yang I.A. et al. Screening for lung cancer with lowdose computed tomography: a review of current status. J Thorac Dis 2013;5(Suppl 5):S524–39.41. Boffetta P., Mannetje A., Zaridze D. et al. Occupational X-ray examinations and lung cancer risk. Int J Cancer 2005;115(2):263–7.Boffetta P., Mannetje A., Zaridze D. et al. Occupational X-ray examinations and lung cancer risk. Int J Cancer 2005;115(2):263–7.42. Заридзе Д.Г., Мукерия А.Ф. Эпидемиология и профилактика рака легкого. Вестник РОНЦ им. Н.Н. Блохина 2010;21(3):3–13. [Zaridze D.G., Mukeria A.F. Epidemiology and prophylactics of lung cancer. Vestnik RONTS im. N.N. Blokhina = Journal of N.N. Blokhin Russian Cancer Research Center 2010;21(3):3–13. (In Russ.)].Заридзе Д.Г., Мукерия А.Ф. Эпидемиология и профилактика рака легкого. Вестник РОНЦ им. Н.Н. Блохина 2010;21(3):3–13. [Zaridze D.G., Mukeria A.F. Epidemiology and prophylactics of lung cancer. Vestnik RONTS im. N.N. Blokhina = Journal of N.N. Blokhin Russian Cancer Research Center 2010;21(3):3–13. (In Russ.)].43. Hannaford P.C., Selvaraj S., Elliott A.M. et al. Cancer risk among users of oral contraceptives: cohort data from the Royal College of General Practitioner’s oral contraception study. BMJ 2007;335(7621):651.Hannaford P.C., Selvaraj S., Elliott A.M. et al. Cancer risk among users of oral contraceptives: cohort data from the Royal College of General Practitioner’s oral contraception study. BMJ 2007;335(7621):651.44. Combined estrogen-progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen-progestogen menopausal therapy. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2007;91:1–528.Combined estrogen-progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen-progestogen menopausal therapy. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2007;91:1–528.45. Beral V., Banks E., Reeves G. Evidence from randomised trials on the long-term effects of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet 2002;360(9337):942–4.Beral V., Banks E., Reeves G. Evidence from randomised trials on the long-term effects of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet 2002;360(9337):942–4.46. Ravdin P.M., Cronin K.A., Howlader N. et al. The decrease in breast-cancer incidence in 2003 in the United States. N Engl J Med 2007;356(16):1670–4.Ravdin P.M., Cronin K.A., Howlader N. et al. The decrease in breast-cancer incidence in 2003 in the United States. N Engl J Med 2007;356(16):1670–4.47. Glass A.G., Lacey J.V. Jr, Carreon J.D. et al. Breast cancer incidence, 1980–2006: combined roles of menopausal hormone therapy, screening mammography, and estrogen receptor status. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99(15):1152–61.Glass A.G., Lacey J.V. Jr, Carreon J.D. et al. Breast cancer incidence, 1980–2006: combined roles of menopausal hormone therapy, screening mammography, and estrogen receptor status. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99(15):1152–61.48. Tobacco: A major International Health Hazard. Eds.: D.G. Zaridze, R. Peto. IARC Scientific Publication № 74. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1986.Tobacco: A major International Health Hazard. Eds.: D.G. Zaridze, R. Peto. IARC Scientific Publication № 74. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1986.49. Mokdad A.H., Dwyer-Lingre L., Fitzmaurice C. et al. Trends and patterns of disparities in cancer mortaluty among US counties, 1980–2014. JAMA 2017;317(4):388–406.Mokdad A.H., Dwyer-Lingre L., Fitzmaurice C. et al. Trends and patterns of disparities in cancer mortaluty among US counties, 1980–2014. JAMA 2017;317(4):388–406.50. Lortet-Tieulent J., Soerjomataram I., Ferlay J. et al. International trends in lung cancer incidence by histological subtype: adenocarcinoma stabilizing in men but still increasing in women. Lung Cancer 2014;84(1):13–22.Lortet-Tieulent J., Soerjomataram I., Ferlay J. et al. International trends in lung cancer incidence by histological subtype: adenocarcinoma stabilizing in men but still increasing in women. Lung Cancer 2014;84(1):13–22.51. Gray N., Zaridze D., Robertson C. et al. Variation within global cigarette brands in tar, nicotine, and certain nitrosamines: analytic study. Tob Control 2000;9:351.Gray N., Zaridze D., Robertson C. et al. Variation within global cigarette brands in tar, nicotine, and certain nitrosamines: analytic study. Tob Control 2000;9:351.52. Castro C., Bosetti C., Malvezzi M. et al. Patterns and trends in esophageal cancer mortality and incidence in Europe (1980–2011) and predictions to 2015. Ann Oncol 2014;25(1):283–90.Castro C., Bosetti C., Malvezzi M. et al. Patterns and trends in esophageal cancer mortality and incidence in Europe (1980–2011) and predictions to 2015. Ann Oncol 2014;25(1):283–90.53. Zhu C., Bassig B.A., Zaridze D. et al. A birth cohort analysis of the incidence of ascending and descending colon cancer in the United States, 1973–2008. Cancer Causes Control 2013;24(6):1147–56.Zhu C., Bassig B.A., Zaridze D. et al. A birth cohort analysis of the incidence of ascending and descending colon cancer in the United States, 1973–2008. Cancer Causes Control 2013;24(6):1147–56.54. Independent UK Panel on Breast Cancer Screening. The benefits and harms of breast cancer screening: an independent review. Lancet 2012;380(9855):1778–86.Independent UK Panel on Breast Cancer Screening. The benefits and harms of breast cancer screening: an independent review. Lancet 2012;380(9855):1778–86.55. Ogilvie G.S., Krajden M., van Niekerk D. et al. HPV for cervical cancer screening (HPV FOCAL): Complete Round 1 results of a randomized trial comparing HPVbased primary screening to liquid based cytology for cervical cancer. Int J Cancer 2017;140(2):440–8.Ogilvie G.S., Krajden M., van Niekerk D. et al. HPV for cervical cancer screening (HPV FOCAL): Complete Round 1 results of a randomized trial comparing HPVbased primary screening to liquid based cytology for cervical cancer. Int J Cancer 2017;140(2):440–8.56. Saslow D., Andrews K.S., ManassaramBaptiste D. et al. Human papillomavirus vaccination guideline update: American Cancer Society guideline endorsement. CA Cancer J Clin 2016;66(5):375–85.Saslow D., Andrews K.S., ManassaramBaptiste D. et al. Human papillomavirus vaccination guideline update: American Cancer Society guideline endorsement. CA Cancer J Clin 2016;66(5):375–85.57. Давыдов М.И., Заридзе Д.Г. Скрининг злокачественных опухолей. Вестник РОНЦ им. Н.Н. Блохина 2014; 25(3–4):5–16. [Davydov M.I., Zaridze D.G. Screening for malignant tumors. Vestnik RONTS im. N.N. Blokhina = Journal of N.N. Blokhin Russian Cancer Research Center 2014;25(3–4):5–16. (In Russ.)].Давыдов М.И., Заридзе Д.Г. Скрининг злокачественных опухолей. Вестник РОНЦ им. Н.Н. Блохина 2014; 25(3–4):5–16. [Davydov M.I., Zaridze D.G. Screening for malignant tumors. Vestnik RONTS im. N.N. Blokhina = Journal of N.N. Blokhin Russian Cancer Research Center 2014;25(3–4):5–16. (In Russ.)].58. Chow W.H., Dong L.M., Devesa S.S. Epidemiology and risk factors for kidney cancer. Nat Rev Urol 2010;7(5): 245–57.Chow W.H., Dong L.M., Devesa S.S. Epidemiology and risk factors for kidney cancer. Nat Rev Urol 2010;7(5): 245–57.59. Malats N., Real F.X. Epidemiology of bladder cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2015;29(2):177–89.Malats N., Real F.X. Epidemiology of bladder cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2015;29(2):177–89.60. Chang M.H., You S.L., Chen C.J. et al. Decreased incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in hepatitis B vaccines: a 20-year follow-up study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009;101(19):1348–55.Chang M.H., You S.L., Chen C.J. et al. Decreased incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in hepatitis B vaccines: a 20-year follow-up study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009;101(19):1348–55.61. Gwack J., Park S.K., Lee E.H. et al. Hepatitis B vaccination and liver cancer mortality reduction in Korean children and adolescents. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2011;12(9):2205–8.Gwack J., Park S.K., Lee E.H. et al. Hepatitis B vaccination and liver cancer mortality reduction in Korean children and adolescents. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2011;12(9):2205–8.62. Hepatitis B. Avaibe at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs204/en/.Hepatitis B. Avaibe at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs204/en/.63. Ilic M., Ilic I. Epidemiology of pancreatic cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22(44):9694–705.Ilic M., Ilic I. Epidemiology of pancreatic cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22(44):9694–705.64. Siegel R.L., Miller K.D., Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2017. CA Cancer J Clin 2017;67(1):7–30.Siegel R.L., Miller K.D., Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2017. CA Cancer J Clin 2017;67(1):7–30.